Basic cheatsheet

C Linkage

#include <iostream>

#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif

int fib(int n) {
  int a = 0, b = 1;
  for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
    auto x = b;
    b = a + b;
    a = x;
  }
  return a;
}

#ifdef __cplusplus
}
#endif

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  std::cout << fib(10) << "\n";
}
// $ g++ -std=c++17 -Wall -Werror -O3 a.cc
// $ nm -g a.out | grep fib
// 0000000100003a58 T _fib

#include <iostream>

int fib(int n) {
  int a = 0, b = 1;
  for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
    auto x = b;
    b = a + b;
    a = x;
  }
  return a;
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  std::cout << fib(10) << "\n";
}
// $ g++ -std=c++17 -Wall -Werror -O3 a.cc
// nm -g a.out | grep fib
// 0000000100003a58 T __Z3fibi

#include <iostream>
#include <sys/cdefs.h>

__BEGIN_DECLS

int fib(int n) {
  int a = 0, b = 1;
  for (int i = 0; i < n; ++i) {
    auto x = b;
    b = a + b;
    a = x;
  }
  return a;
}

__END_DECLS

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  std::cout << fib(10) << "\n";
}
// $ g++ -std=c++17 -Wall -Werror -O3 a.cc
// $ nm -g a.out | grep fib
// 0000000100003a58 T _fib

Uniform Initialization

Uniform Initialization is also called braced initialization, which unifies constructing an object using a brace. However, there are some pitfalls in using syntax. For example, the compiler prefers to call std::initializer_list to initialize an object even with a matched constructor. The following snippet shows that x{10, 5.0} will call Foo(std::initializer_list<long double>) to construct an object event though Foo(int a, double b) is the more suitable one.

#include <iostream>
#include <initializer_list>

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(int a, double b) {
    std::cout << "without initializer_list\n";
  }

  Foo(std::initializer_list<long double> il) {
    std::cout << "with initializer_list\n";
  }
};

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  Foo x{10, 5.0};
   // output: with initializer_list
}

Moreover, uniform initialization does not support narrowing conversion. Therefore, the following snippet will compile errors because int and double need to do narrowing conversion bool.

#include <iostream>
#include <initializer_list>

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(int a, double b) {
    std::cout << "without initializer_list\n";
  }

  // compile error
  Foo(std::initializer_list<bool> il) {
    std::cout << "with initializer_list\n";
  }
};

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  Foo x{10, 5.0};
}

Note that when types cannot convert, the compiler does not use std::initializer_list to initialize an object. For example, int and double cannot convert to std::string, so the compiler will call Foo(int, double) to create an object.

#include <iostream>
#include <string>
#include <initializer_list>

class Foo {
public:
  Foo(int a, double b) {
    std::cout << "without initializer_list\n";
  }

  Foo(std::initializer_list<std::string> il) {
    std::cout << "with initializer_list\n";
  }
};

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  Foo x{10, 5.0};
  // output: without initializer_list
}

Negative Array index

#include <iostream>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    // note: arr[i] = *(a + i)
    int arr[] = {1, 2, 3};
    int *ptr = &arr[1];

    std::cout << ptr[-1] << "\n";
    std::cout << ptr[0] << "\n";
    std::cout << ptr[1] << "\n";
}

Reference

#include <iostream>

template<typename T>
void f(T& param) noexcept {}
// param is a reference

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    int x = 123;
    const int cx = x;
    const int &rx = x;

    f(x);   // type(param) = int&
    f(cx);  // type(param) = const int&
    f(rx);  // type(param) = const int&

    return 0;
}

#include <iostream>

template<typename T>
void f(T&& param) noexcept {}
// param is a universal reference

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    int x = 123;
    const int cx = x;
    const int &rx = x;

    f(x);   // x is a lvalue, type(param) = int&
    f(cx);  // cx is a lvalue, type(param) = const int&
    f(rx);  // rx is a lvalue, type(param) = const int&
    f(12);  // 12 is a rvalue, type(param) = int&&

    return 0;
}

#include <iostream>

template<typename T>
void f(T param) noexcept {}
// param is neither a pointer nor a reference.

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
    int x = 123;
    const int cx = x;
    const int &rx = x;

    f(x);   // type(param) = int
    f(cx);  // type(param) = int
    f(rx);  // type(param) = int
    f(12);  // type(param) = int

    return 0;
}

auto

auto x = 123;        // type(x) = int
const auto cx = x;   // type(cx) = const int
const auto &rx = x;  // type(rx) = const int&

auto &&urx = x;      // type(urx) = int&
auto &&urcx = cx;    // type(urcx) = const int&
auto &&urrx = rx;    // type(urrx) = const int&
auto &&urrv = 12;    // type(urrv) = int&&

decltype(auto)

The decltype(auto) is similar to auto, which decudes type via compiler. However, decltype(auto) preserves types reference and cv-qualifiers, while auto does not.

#include <type_traits>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  int x;
  const int cx = x;
  const int &crx = x;
  int &&z = 0;

  // decltype(auto) preserve cv-qualifiers
  decltype(auto) y1 = crx;
  static_assert(std::is_same<const int &, decltype(y1)>::value == 1);
  // auto does not preserve cv-qualifiers
  auto y2 = crx;
  static_assert(std::is_same<int, decltype(y2)>::value == 1);
  // decltype(auto) preserve rvalue reference
  decltype(auto) z1 = std::move(z);
  static_assert(std::is_same<int &&, decltype(z1)>::value == 1);
}

decltype(auto) is especially useful for writing a generic function’s return.

#include <type_traits>

auto foo(const int &x) {
  return x;
}

decltype(auto) bar(const int &x) {
  return x;
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  static_assert(std::is_same<int, decltype(foo(1))>::value == 1);
  static_assert(std::is_same<const int &, decltype(bar(1))>::value == 1);
}

Reference Collapsing

// T& & -> T&
// T& && -> T&
// T&& & -> T&
// T&& && -> T&&
// note & always wins. that is T& && == T&& & == T& & == T&
// only T&& && == T&&

Perfect Forwarding

#include <iostream>
#include <utility>
#include <type_traits>

template <typename T>
T&& forward(typename std::remove_reference<T>::type& t) noexcept {
  std::cout << std::is_lvalue_reference<decltype(t)>::value << std::endl;
  return static_cast<T&&>(t);
}

template <typename T>
T&& forward(typename std::remove_reference<T>::type&& t) noexcept {
  static_assert(
    !std::is_lvalue_reference<T>::value,
    "Can not forward an rvalue as an lvalue."
  );
  std::cout << std::is_lvalue_reference<decltype(t)>::value << std::endl;
  return static_cast<T&&>(t);
}

int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
  int a = 0;
  forward<int>(a);     // forward lvalues to rvalues
  forward<int>(9527);  // forward rvalues to rvalues
  return 0;
}

#include <iostream>
#include <utility>
#include <type_traits>

template <typename T, typename Func>
void wrapper(T &&a, Func fn) {
  fn(std::forward<T>(a)); // forward lvalue to lvalues or rvalues
}

struct Foo {
  Foo(int a1, int a2) : a(a1), b(a2), ret(0) {}
  int a, b, ret;
};

int main (int argc, char *argv[])
{
  Foo foo{1, 2};
  Foo &bar = foo;
  Foo &&baz = Foo(5, 6);

  wrapper(foo, [](Foo foo) {
    foo.ret =  foo.a + foo.b;
    return foo.ret;
  });
  std::cout << foo.ret << std::endl;

  wrapper(bar, [](Foo &foo) {
    foo.ret = foo.a - foo.b;
    return foo.ret;
  });
  std::cout << bar.ret << std::endl;

  // move an rvalue to lvalue
  wrapper(std::move(baz), [](Foo &&foo) {
    foo.ret = foo.a * foo.b;
    return foo.ret;
  });
  std::cout << baz.ret << std::endl;
  return 0;
}

Bit Manipulation

#include <iostream>
#include <bitset>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
        std::bitset<4> b{8};

        // show number of bits set
        std::cout << b.count() << "\n";
        // compare with int
        std::cout << (b == 8) << "\n";
}

Using std::addressof

Because C++ allows the overloading of operator &, accessing the address of an reference will result in infinite recusion. Therefore, when it is necessary to access the address of reference, it would be safer by using std::addressof.

#include <iostream>
#include <memory>

struct A {
  int x;
};

const A *operator &(const A& a) {
  // return &a; <- infinite recursion
  return std::addressof(a);
}

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
  A a;
  std::cout << &a << "\n";
}