Polymorphism & Inheritance

Polymorphism & Inheritance#

Polymorphism lets a single interface drive different concrete behaviors. Modern C++ supports three distinct flavors:

Subtype polymorphism — inheritance and virtual functions, resolved at run time through a per-object pointer to a table of function pointers (the vtable). Concrete types share a common base class.
Static (parametric) polymorphism — templates, overloading, CRTP, and concepts, resolved at compile time. Zero indirection, full inlining.
Trait-style polymorphism — type erasure. Unrelated concrete types are stored behind a value-semantic wrapper that calls into a hidden vtable. No shared base class is required; the contract is purely behavioral. This is the C++ analog of Rust’s dyn Trait.

This chapter focuses on the first flavor, the vtable mechanics that implement it, and the pitfalls of class hierarchies — then revisits CRTP and type erasure at the end so you can pick the right tool.

For the static counterpart — CRTP, concepts, and template-based dispatch — see Template and Concepts. For Rust’s trait model, see Traits and Generics. For the safe runtime-checked downcast, see Casting.

Virtual Functions#

Source:: src/polymorphism/virtual-functions

A member function declared virtual in a base class can be overridden in a derived class. When called through a pointer or reference to the base, the dynamic type of the object decides which override runs. Without virtual, the call is bound to the static type at compile time.

#include <iostream>

struct Animal {
  virtual void speak() const { std::cout << "..." << "\n"; }
  void name() const { std::cout << "Animal" << "\n"; }  // non-virtual
};

struct Dog : Animal {
  void speak() const override { std::cout << "Woof" << "\n"; }
  void name() const { std::cout << "Dog" << "\n"; }
};

int main() {
  Dog d;
  Animal &a = d;
  a.speak();   // "Woof"   - dynamic dispatch through vtable
  a.name();    // "Animal" - static dispatch, base version called
}

The non-virtual name is hidden in Dog, not overridden. The choice of which to call is made by the compiler from the static type, so a.name() calls Animal::name even though a actually refers to a Dog.

override and final#

Source:: src/polymorphism/override-final

override (C++11) tells the compiler that a function is intended to override a base virtual. If the signature does not actually match a base virtual, the program fails to compile. This catches typos, forgotten const qualifiers, and signature drift after a refactor.

final prevents further overriding (when applied to a function) or further derivation (when applied to a class). It also enables a useful optimization: the compiler can devirtualize calls to a final override.

struct Base {
  virtual void f() const;
  virtual void g(int);
};

struct Derived : Base {
  void f() const override;          // OK
  // void f() override;             // ERROR: missing const
  void g(int) override final;       // cannot be overridden further
};

struct Sealed final : Derived {     // cannot be derived from
  void f() const override;
};

Always write override on overriding functions. It is not redundant — it is a compile-time contract that the override still tracks the base.

Pure Virtual Functions and Abstract Classes#

Source:: src/polymorphism/pure-virtual

A function with = 0 is pure virtual; the class that declares it is abstract and cannot be instantiated. Derived classes must override every pure virtual function before they become concrete.

struct Shape {
  virtual double area() const = 0;
  virtual ~Shape() = default;       // see Virtual Destructors
};

struct Circle : Shape {
  explicit Circle(double r) : r_(r) {}
  double area() const override { return 3.14159 * r_ * r_; }
 private:
  double r_;
};

// Shape s;        // ERROR: cannot instantiate abstract class
Circle c(1.0);     // OK
Shape *p = &c;     // OK: pointer to abstract base

A pure virtual function can still have a definition; derived classes that explicitly call Base::fn() will then run that definition. This is occasionally useful for shared default behavior in an otherwise abstract interface.

Virtual Destructors#

Source:: src/polymorphism/virtual-destructor

If a class is meant to be a polymorphic base — that is, deleted through a base pointer — its destructor must be virtual. Without it, deleting through the base pointer invokes only the base destructor, leaking the derived part of the object. This is undefined behavior.

struct Base {
  ~Base() { /* not virtual */ }
};

struct Derived : Base {
  std::vector<int> data_{1, 2, 3};
  ~Derived() { /* destructor never runs */ }
};

Base *p = new Derived;
delete p;   // UB: ~Derived not called, data_ leaks

Two safe defaults:

If a class has any virtual function, give it a virtual ~Base() = default;.
If a class is not intended for polymorphic deletion, mark it final or document that fact, so callers do not silently rely on a non-virtual destructor.

The vtable and vptr#

Most compilers implement dynamic dispatch with a vtable: a per-class array of function pointers, one slot per virtual function. Each polymorphic object stores a hidden vptr pointing to its class’s vtable. A virtual call becomes two indirections: load the vptr, index into the vtable, jump to the target.

struct B {
  virtual void f();          // vtable slot 0
  virtual void g();          // vtable slot 1
  int x;
};

struct D : B {
  void f() override;         // overrides slot 0
  void h();                  // not virtual
  int y;
};

// Memory layout (typical Itanium ABI):
//
//   B object:        D object:
//   +-------+        +-------+
//   | vptr  |  ----> | vptr  |  ----> D's vtable: [&D::f, &B::g, ...]
//   |   x   |        |   x   |
//   +-------+        |   y   |
//                    +-------+

Consequences of this layout:

Every polymorphic object pays one pointer (typically 8 bytes on 64-bit) of storage for the vptr.
A virtual call is one extra load and an indirect branch compared to a direct call. The cost is small but real, and it can defeat inlining.
The vptr is set by each constructor as the object’s type changes during construction (see Construction and Destruction Order).

The exact layout is ABI-defined. The Itanium ABI used by GCC, Clang, and the Apple toolchain places the vptr at offset 0 and shares vtables between translation units; MSVC’s ABI differs in the details (and in how it handles multiple inheritance) but follows the same general scheme.

You can inspect the layout with -fdump-lang-class (GCC) or -Xclang -fdump-record-layouts (Clang).

Static vs. Dynamic Dispatch#

A non-virtual call is bound at compile time and can be inlined. A virtual call requires the dynamic type, so it can only be devirtualized when the compiler proves the dynamic type — for example, when the object’s most-derived type is visible at the call site, or when the function is declared final.

struct I { virtual int f() const = 0; };
struct A final : I { int f() const override { return 1; } };

int callI(const I &i)  { return i.f(); }   // virtual call
int callA(const A &a)  { return a.f(); }   // devirtualized: A is final
int callD()            { A a; return a.f(); } // direct call, inlinable

Rules of thumb:

Calls through a base pointer or reference are virtual.
Calls on a known concrete object are direct.
final on the override (or the class) lets the compiler devirtualize.
Inside a constructor or destructor, virtual calls dispatch to the currently-constructed type, not the most-derived type (see below).

Construction and Destruction Order#

Source:: src/polymorphism/ctor-dtor-dispatch

During construction, the object’s vptr is set to each base subobject’s vtable in turn before its own constructor body runs. So a virtual call from inside a base constructor dispatches to the base version, not the derived override — the derived part of the object does not exist yet. Destruction is the mirror image.

struct B {
  B() { f(); }                              // calls B::f, not D::f
  virtual void f() { std::puts("B::f"); }
  virtual ~B() { f(); }                     // calls B::f
};

struct D : B {
  void f() override { std::puts("D::f"); }
};

D d;   // prints "B::f" twice (ctor and dtor)

This is a common interview question and a real source of bugs. Never call virtual functions from a constructor or destructor expecting derived behavior. If you need polymorphic initialization, use a two-step create factory or a separate init call after construction.

The Slicing Problem#

Source:: src/polymorphism/slicing

Assigning a derived object to a base value copies only the base subobject — the derived part is “sliced off”. The result is a base object that has lost its dynamic type, and any virtual call on it will run the base version.

struct Animal { virtual void speak() const { std::puts("..."); } };
struct Dog : Animal { void speak() const override { std::puts("Woof"); } };

void by_value(Animal a)       { a.speak(); }   // sliced -> "..."
void by_reference(const Animal &a) { a.speak(); }  // polymorphic -> "Woof"

int main() {
  Dog d;
  by_value(d);
  by_reference(d);
}

To preserve polymorphism, pass by reference (const Animal &), pointer (const Animal *), or a smart pointer (std::unique_ptr<Animal>). Containers of polymorphic objects must hold pointers, not values: std::vector<Animal> slices on every push_back; std::vector<std::unique_ptr<Animal>> does not.

Multiple Inheritance#

Source:: src/polymorphism/multiple-inheritance

A class may have more than one direct base. Each non-virtual base contributes its own subobject and (if polymorphic) its own vptr. Casting between base pointers may adjust the pointer value to land on the right subobject.

struct Drawable { virtual void draw() const = 0; virtual ~Drawable() = default; };
struct Serializable { virtual void save() const = 0; virtual ~Serializable() = default; };

struct Widget : Drawable, Serializable {
  void draw() const override;
  void save() const override;
};

Widget w;
Drawable     *d = &w;   // points at Drawable subobject
Serializable *s = &w;   // points at Serializable subobject (offset!)
// static_cast<void*>(d) != static_cast<void*>(s) in general

Multiple inheritance is fine for interface inheritance (abstract bases with no state). It gets complicated quickly when two bases share a common ancestor — the diamond problem.

The Diamond Problem and Virtual Inheritance#

Source:: src/polymorphism/diamond

When a class indirectly inherits from the same base through two paths, the default is to embed two copies of that base. Member access becomes ambiguous, and the two copies can diverge.

struct A { int x; };
struct B : A {};
struct C : A {};
struct D : B, C {};   // two A subobjects

D d;
// d.x;            // ERROR: ambiguous
d.B::x = 1;
d.C::x = 2;        // independent of d.B::x

virtual inheritance collapses the duplicates into a single shared subobject:

struct A { int x; };
struct B : virtual A {};
struct C : virtual A {};
struct D : B, C {};   // one A subobject

D d;
d.x = 1;              // unambiguous

Virtual inheritance has costs: an extra indirection (the vbase pointer) to locate the shared subobject, and the most-derived class becomes responsible for initializing the virtual base. Reach for it only when you genuinely need shared state across diamond paths; prefer composition or interface-only multiple inheritance otherwise.

RTTI and dynamic_cast#

Run-Time Type Information (RTTI) lets you query the dynamic type of a polymorphic object. typeid returns a std::type_info; dynamic_cast performs a checked downcast.

#include <typeinfo>

struct Base { virtual ~Base() = default; };
struct Derived : Base { void special(); };

void handle(Base *b) {
  if (auto *d = dynamic_cast<Derived *>(b)) {  // null on failure
    d->special();
  }
  try {
    Derived &dr = dynamic_cast<Derived &>(*b); // throws std::bad_cast
    dr.special();
  } catch (const std::bad_cast &) {
  }
}

dynamic_cast requires a polymorphic source type (at least one virtual function in the static type). It is not free: it walks the type hierarchy at run time. If you find yourself reaching for it often, the design probably wants another virtual function instead.

For the cast hierarchy (static_cast, const_cast, reinterpret_cast) see Casting.

Pure Interfaces and the Non-Virtual Interface Idiom#

Source:: src/polymorphism/nvi

A common pattern is to expose a non-virtual public API that calls into private virtual hooks. The base class fixes pre/post conditions; derived classes only customize behavior.

struct Logger {
  void log(std::string_view msg) {            // public, non-virtual
    prefix();
    write(msg);                                // protected/private virtual
    flush();
  }
  virtual ~Logger() = default;
 private:
  void prefix() { /* ... */ }
  virtual void write(std::string_view) = 0;
  void flush() { /* ... */ }
};

This Non-Virtual Interface (NVI) idiom keeps the contract in one place and makes the override surface explicit.

Virtual vs. CRTP — When to Pick Which#

Source:: src/template/crtp

If you do not need heterogeneous containers or runtime dispatch, the Curiously Recurring Template Pattern gives polymorphism without a vtable and inlines cleanly:

template <typename Derived>
struct Shape {
  double area() const {
    return static_cast<const Derived &>(*this).area_impl();
  }
};

struct Circle : Shape<Circle> {
  double area_impl() const { return 3.14159 * r_ * r_; }
  double r_;
};

Choose dynamic polymorphism when:

You need to store mixed concrete types in one collection.
The set of derived types is not known at the call site.
The runtime cost of an indirect call is negligible compared to the work inside the function.

Choose static polymorphism (CRTP, concepts, templates) when:

All types are known at compile time.
The function is small and benefits from inlining.
You want zero-overhead abstractions.

See Template for CRTP details and Concepts for the modern concepts-based alternative.

Trait-Style Polymorphism (Type Erasure)#

The third flavor of polymorphism — the one Rust makes idiomatic with dyn Trait — is type erasure. Unrelated concrete types are stored behind a value-semantic wrapper that calls into a hidden vtable; no shared base class is required.

std::vector<AnyDrawable> shapes;
shapes.emplace_back(Circle{1.0});   // no inheritance from anything
shapes.emplace_back(Square{2.0});

This pattern is large enough that it has its own chapter: see Type Erasure for the Concept/Model recipe, small-buffer optimization, std::function / std::any / std::move_only_function, and the comparison with Rust trait objects.

Common Pitfalls#

Non-virtual destructor in a polymorphic base. Deleting through a base pointer is undefined behavior. Always make the destructor virtual or protected (the latter prevents base-pointer deletion entirely).
Calling virtual functions from constructors or destructors. Dispatch uses the type currently under construction, not the most-derived type.
Slicing on copy. Storing or passing polymorphic objects by value silently drops their derived state.
Forgetting override. Without it, a signature change in the base silently turns an override into a new function.
Default argument values. Defaults are picked from the static type of the call, not the dynamic type. base->f() uses Base’s defaults even if the override declares different ones — confusing and a frequent source of bugs. Avoid changing defaults in overrides.
Calling dynamic_cast in a hot loop. It walks the type hierarchy. Cache the result, or refactor to add a virtual function.
Virtual inheritance “just to be safe”. It adds storage and indirection. Use it only for genuine diamonds with shared state.